International Journal of Climate Change-Action and Environmental Studies (IJCCAS)
Analysis of Labour Utilization and Farmers’ Participation in Rice Production in Ekiti State, Nigeria
22
Analysis of Labour Utilization and Farmers’ Participation in Rice
Production in Ekiti State, Nigeria
1Idowu, T. C., 2Olanipekun, O. A., and 1Obasi F. A.
1Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Obafemi Awolowo University, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, 2Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife. ; Corresponding Author’s Email: idowutolulope83@gmail.com;
Abstract
This study was conducted to assess how labour use patterns and farmer involvement can enhance the efficiency of rice farming in Ekiti-State. The
specific objectives of the study were to; identify the socio-economic characteristics of the respondent, identify problems associated with the dissemination
of information or farm technology to farmers and identify the training facilities available to the respondents. A structured questionnaire was used to
gather data from one hundred and thirty-five (135) rice farmers through a multistage sampling technique. Descriptive statistics were used to determine
the labour use pattern in rice production activities. The result shows that the farmers were mostly male (77.8%), were small holder farmers (1.7 ± 0.8
hectare) with an average of 30.8 years of experience in rice production. The farmers were not highly involved in any of the productive activities, but
had an average participation index in land preparation (2.42 ± 1.43), planting (2.55 ± 1.53), weeding (2.63 ± 1.41), pest control (2.30 ± 1.30) and
harvesting (2.37 ± 1.68). The labour employed by the rice farmers was mostly hired labour. Based on the study, it was recommended that agricultural
institutions (example, National Cereals Research Institution) and extension agencies should double their effort in reaching the rice farmers in Ekiti
State especially training them on fertilizer application and pest control, so that the farmers would be highly involved in the practices, thus increasing
their output. Government should also make efforts to make farm machines (such as ploughs, planters, combined harvesters) processing and storage
facilities accessible, affordable and subsidised to farmers. The study concludes that there exist a significant different in their level of involvement in rice
production activities across different age categories; thus, showing that the younger and able-bodied farmers have higher level of output as opposed to
the aged ones.
Keywords: Rice Production, Farmers’ Participation, Social Infrastructure, Life expectancy.
Introduction: Rice has been a staple food globally for over
50% of people and the most significant among cereal crops. It
is mainly cultivated by small farmers (Ojo et al, 2020;
Edeoghon et al, 2019; Okunola et al, 2018). Rice is a crucial
food crop in many parts of the world, including Nigeria. This
crop is found to be a staple food crop sub-sector of Nigeria,
rice production occupies an important position, especially
among cereal crops (Sadiq et al., 2020.) Presently, the average
Nigerians consumes 21 kg of rice per year, comprising 9 % of
the total caloric intake and 23 % of the total consumption of
cereals, with the population consuming approximately 2.1
million tons of rice annually (Sadiq et al., 2022). In Nigeria,
rice production is largely concentrated in the Southwestern
states, with Ekiti State being one of the major contributors to
the country’s rice production. Despite this, rice farming in
Nigeria is challenged by factors such as limited irrigation
systems, low yields, and the lack of access to improved
farming technologies. Nigerian farmers complain of
unavailability and high labour costs, long propagation periods,
and high use of crude rice processing technologies. There is a
need to make effective use of basic production factors,
including labour, land and resources, in order to have
sustainable agricultural growth. Human labour stimulates
other factors of production and converts other farm inputs into
the outputs needed. The lack of farm labour has had a negative
effect on planting accuracy, improved weed control, timely
harvesting and crop processing. Kadurumba et al., (2020) have
noted the inadequacy of farm labour to promote the expansion
of rice farms and to intensify the already chosen area for rice
production in Nigeria.
Drudgery in farm activities, rural-urban migration and lack of
social infrastructure in rural areas, as well as low farm income
and low life expectancy in rural areas could be due to the
growing absence of people under the productive/active age.
The only main source of labor available to small-scale rice
farmers in Nigeria is human labor (Kadurumba et al, 2020).
Thus, there is a need to continue to supply the ever-growing
Nigerian population with food, which is rooted on the
productivity of human labor.To address these challenges and
enhance rice farming efficiency, it is necessary to understand
the involvement of farmers in rice production activities and the
labour patterns they employ. This knowledge can inform the
design and implementation of interventions that promote
sustainable and profitable rice farming practices.This study
aims to examine the level of involvement of farmers in rice
production activities and their labour use patterns in Ekiti
State, Nigeria. The results of this study will provide valuable
insights into the factors that affect rice farming efficiency in
the region and help inform policies and interventions to
support the development of the rice industry in Nigeria.
Despite its importance in Nigeria’s food security and economic
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International Journal of Climate Change-
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
development, rice production in the country continues to be
hindered by several challenges, including low productivity,
inadequate irrigation systems, and limited access to modern
farming technologies. In Ekiti State, a major rice producing
region in the country (EKDIPA, 2024), these challenges are
further compounded by the limited understanding of farmers’
involvement and labour use patterns that contribute to rice
farming efficiency. Rice farming has the potential to contribute
to food security, poverty reduction, and economic growth in
the country, but these benefits can only be realized if the
productivity and efficiency of rice farming are improved. The
study examined the analysis of labour utilization and farmers’
participation in rice production activities in the study area. It
also assessed labour use patterns employed by farmers in rice
production in Ekiti state, Nigeria.
Research Methodology: Area of Study: The study was
carried out in Ekiti State. The State was carved out from old
Ondo State on October 1, 1996. It lies between 70 151 and 80
71 North of the equator and longitude 40 471 and 50 451 East
of the Greenwich Meridian. The State is bounded to the North
by Kwara and Kogi States, to the South and East by Ondo State
and to the West by Osun State (Encarta, 2009). Ekiti State has
a mean annual rainfall of about 1400mm and a mean annual
temperature of 270C. Its vegetation ranges from Rainforest in
the South to Guinea savannah in the North with soil largely
rich in organic minerals, making the State a major producer of
both trees and food crops. The land is buoyant in Agricultural
resources with rice as one of its leading food crops (Ekiti State
Government Diary, 2008). Ekiti State is made up of sixteen
(16) Local Government Areas and Ado-Ekiti is the state capital
as well as the headquarters of Ado-Ekiti Local Government
Area. The population of Ekiti State from 2006 Census was
2,384,212 people and is made up predominantly of the Yoruba
ethnic groups that have settled in the State. They are closely
related traditionally as well as culturally, and speak the same
language with minor dialect differences. The occupation of the
people is farming with food crops like yam, maize, cassava and
cash crops such as cocoa, kola nut, cashew and oil palm with
reasonable percentage of the people engaging in other forms
of occupation such as trading, weaving and handcraft. Hence,
Ekiti State is predominantly agrarian in nature.
Sampling Technique and Sample Size” A multi-stage
sampling technique was employed in the course of this
research work. In the first stage, three local government areas
(LGAs) were purposively selected based on their volume of
rice production in the State. They are Irepodun/Ifelodun,
Gbonyin, and Emure LGAs. In the second stage, three
towns/villages were purposively chosen from each selected
LGA based on their level of rice production, making a total of
nine villages. At the third stage, 15 rice farmers were randomly
selected from each of the towns/villages to make forty-five
respondents per LGA. The sample size was 135 respondents.
Measurement of Variables: Dependent Variable: Farmers’
level of involvement in rice production is the dependent
variable which was measured by asking respondents to
indicate their level of involvement in rice production activities
using a 5 point Likert-type scale at ordinal level and labeled
as Always -4, most of the time -3, sometimes -*62, rarely
involved -1 and never -0. This was measured for the
respondents when they were <30 years, between 30-50 years
and older than 50 years.
Independent Variables: The independent variables of the
study were the socio-economic characteristics of the
respondents such as age, sex, religion, marital status, highest
educational level, farming experience, farm size and
membership of social organization. Other variables measured
include the level of decision making in the organization and
means of acquisition of rice farm among others.
Data Analysis: Descriptive and inferential statistical tools
were used for this study. Descriptive statistics comprising of
frequency counts, means, range, percentages and charts were
used in the presentation of data value and all the hypotheses
were analyzed using one-way ANOVA.
Results and Discussion: Respondent’s Level of
Involvement in Rice Production Activities.: Table 1a, shows
that all the farmers in their youthful age (≤ 30 years) carried
out land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting
although at different levels. This implies that these activities
are actively carried out by the youths and that they are
necessary activities for rice production. Table 1a also shows
that about 59.6% and 49.6% of the farmers were never
involved in fertilizer application and pest control respectively.
Table 1b shows that during their middle age years (31 – 50
years), only 0.7% of the farmers were never involved in land
preparation and planting, while all the farmers were involved
in rice planting. Less than half, 41.5% and 38.5%, were never
involved in fertilizer application and pest control, respectively.
Table 1c shows that among the older farmers, about 93.3%,
86.7%, 93.7%, 52.6% were involved in land preparation,
planting, weeding and fertilizer application respectively at
various levels. It is noteworthy that about 40% and 47.4% of
the older farmers were never involved in pest control and
fertilizer application, respectively. The high percentages
recorded for the farmers who were never involved in pest
control in all the age groups likely because pest control
requires skill, expertise and patience, if not the farmers will run
at a loss.
In Table 2, it was revealed that when respondents were in their
youthful age (≤ 30 years), the mean level of involvement was
3.7±0.76, which indicated a high level of involvement in land
clearing. During their middle ages (31-50 years), mean level
of involvement was 3.25 ±0.97. This revealed a moderate
level of involvement. Currently, their level of involvement in
their elderly years (above 50 years) also revealed a moderate
level of involvement based on the mean value of 2.6 ±1.6. The
intensity is however lower that of the middle aged years. This
reveals a decreasing level of involvement as they age. This
substantiates the assertion that age is a strong determinant in
the level of involvement of farmers in agricultural activities in
developing countries as agricultural operations are basically
done with primitive tools and manual labour. The reduction
experienced in the mean value for the age groups
(≤30, 30-50 and>50) underscores the fact that land
preparation in rice production is labour-intensive and requires
strength which is embedded in the youths. Therefore, the
ageing farmers cannot cope with land preparation, thereby
having to contract land preparation to hired labourers which
will increase the cost of production. The result conforms to
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
Mohammed and Abdulquadri (2012); and Manalo and Elske
(2013) who noticed that rice farming is majorly carried out by
the youths. In Table 2, it was noticed that planting
involvement diminished among the age groups from the very
agile farmers (≤ 30years) who had mean involvement of 3.70,
to those that have moderate strength (31 to 50 years) who had
mean involvement of 3.3 and lastly the older farmers
(>50years) who had mean involvement of 2.55. The finding is
in consonance with Agwu et al., (2012), who noted that age is
a determining factor is the supply of agricultural labour.
Weeding is important in rice production, and thus the farmers’
involvement is crucial. The result in Table 2 indicates that the
farmers’ participation in weeding reduces as they age. This
conforms to Ugwoke et al., (2005) who recorded that 78.6%
of the youths in Imo State are involved in weeding. Low mean
values were recorded for the level of involvement of farmers
in fertilizer application (Table 2). This may be because
fertilizer application requires skills, expertise and patience.
This could also be the reason the young rice farmers recorded
the highest percentage (55.6%) of the farmers that never
applied fertilizer. Fertilizer application had the least level of
involvement, which is supported by Chinasa et al., (2025) who
put applying fertilizer as the farm activity in rice production
with the highest number of labour days. It could that the
respondents do not apply fertilizer on their farm due to
financial constraint and its unavailability. Pest infestation is
common to rice production; therefore, pests should be
controlled to the barest minimum level. The decreasing trend
noticed as the ages increase signifies that age and ageing
process affect the level of involvement in pest control. The
table 2 further revealed that farmers have a moderate level of
involvement in bird scaring across all age groups. A decreasing
trend was observed in the farmers’ level of involvement in
harvesting operations. Table 2 shows that a high level of
involvement in harvesting among the rice farmers in their
youthful ages as indicated by the mean value and standard
deviation of 3.55 ± 0.93. A moderate level of involvement
(2.76 and 2.37) was recorded for the middle aged and older
farmers respectively. The finding supports Ayandiji et al.,
(2011) who stated that age is to be considered when
determining the level of involvement in harvesting.
labour Use Pattern in Rice Production Activities: The
labour use pattern of rice farmers in various production
activities is given in Table 3. The result shows that 47.4% of
young farmers utilized self-labour for land preparation. This is
expected due to the strength required for executing land
preparation on the farm. More than fifty percent of the farmers
in their middle ages utilized family labour for land preparation
because they can easily convince and motivate household
members to assist in the farm operation. A higher percentage
(85.9%) of the older farmers used hired labour for land
preparation mostly because they do not have enough strength
to for the activity, thus they opted for hired labour. Also, it was
gathered from the field that their children and young relatives
have migrated to the cities. As stated earlier, farmers’
participation in weeding reduces as they age. Table 3 shows
that the use of self labour is highest among young farmers
(30.4%) and lowest among aged farmers (17.8%), while the
use of hired labour is highest (65.9%) among older farmers.
This is because weeding although very important is mainly
done manually and is a labour-intensive. Older farmers who
lack the strength for weeding would rather pay to have the
operation carried out. It is noticed that hired labour was the
most used type of labour for weeding, this is because weeding
is a very stressful farm operation and it is labour intensive, thus
farmers are discouraged from using mainly self labour,
sharecropping, family labour or communal labour. More also,
weeding is a continuous activity during a planting season,
hence, more cost is incurred during weeding operations.
Fertilizer application had a low level of involvement across all
age groups. The result shows that about 44.4% of young
farmers applied fertilizer. The data in Table 3revealed that
40.7% of the young farmers that apply fertilizer mainly used
hired labour while 25.9% used self labour for fertilizer
application, 17.0% used share cropping, those that used family
labour were 15.6% and 0.7% used communal labour. About
36% of farmers in the middle-age used family labour, 26.7%
used hired labour, 25.2% used self labour, 11.9% used
sharecropping and 0.7% used communal labour for fertilizer
application. Presently farmers used sharecropping (30.4%),
26.7% used hired labour, 25.2% of the farmers used self
labour, while the least used labour were family labour (15.6%)
and communal labour (2.2%). Pest control can be carried out
in various ways, some of which are Chemical, biological and
cultural methods which require labour. Rice farmers in their
young ages used self labour (55.6%), hired labour (26.7%),
family labour (17.0%) and communal labour (0.7%) for pest
control activity. During their middle ages 31 to 50 years, most
of them (38.5%) used self labour, 37.0% used family labour,
22.2% used hired labour and those that used sharecropping and
communal labour for pest control activity were 1.5% and 0.7%
respectively. Presently, farmers used self labour (30.4%), hired
labour (48.9%), 18.5% used family labour and 2.2% used
communal labour. Self-labour was the most common labour
used by young and middle-aged rice farmers. While rice
harvesting can be done manually or mechanically, it is mainly
done manually in Ekiti State due to land fragmentation.
Manual harvesting is labour intensive. Hired labour (35.6%)
was mainly used by the rice farmers when ≤ 30 years, followed
by self labour (26.7%), family labour shared 23.7%, the
communal labour shared 13.3% and 0.7% of the farmers used
sharecropping for harvesting. Most (68.1%) of the farmers
used farmers labours, 6.7%harvested themselves, 17.0%
employed hired labour and 8.1% used communal labour for
rice harvesting. Currently, farmers used hired labour (50.4%),
family labour (23.0%), communal labour (17.8%) and self
labour (8.9%).
In summary, rice farming is a labour-intensive activity and
demands skilled and unskilled labour (Jakada and Ifyalem,
2023). It was noticed that rice farmers when ≤ 30 years used
mostly self labour for rice production activities, this is because
they have enough strength, skill and ability to carry out the
activities. The rice farmers in their middle ages (30 and 50
years) used mainly family labour for their various production
operations, this is because they have relatively large household
size to work with them on the farm their children are still with
them during that age period. This is in consonance with Takane
(2008), who agreed that family labour is the most used type of
labour. Presently, the older farmers (> 50 years) use mainly
hired labour in rice farming. They do not have enough strength
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
and ability to carry out different rice production activities, and
it was also gathered that the children and young relatives of the
ageing farmers have migrated to urban centres in search for
livelihood. This conforms to Awotodunbo (2008), Anyiro et
al., (2012) who stated that there is significant difference
between age and labour use pattern among farmers in Osun
State and also the hired labour are readily available for farm
activities. Also, Solanke et al., (2016) found that hat the older
the farmer, the lower the likelihood of being technically
efficient. The study shows that there is a significant difference
between farmers age and labour use pattern among rice farmers
in Ekiti state.
Conclusion and Recommendation;” The study showed that
there were significant differences between the level of
involvement in rice production activities, across different age
categories of farmers in the study area.The coping strategies
mostly adopted by the ageing farmers to manage their rice
production were use of herbicides, reduced work hours,
increase hired labour usage and reduced level of involvement
in production activities. Based on the empirical findings of this
study, the following recommendations would be of immense
benefit: The agricultural research institutions (e.g., National
Cereals Research Institution) and extension agencies should
double their effort to reach the rice farmers in Ekiti State.
Especially, training them on fertilizer application and pest
control, so that the farmers would be highly involved in the
practices, thus increasing their output.’ Youth should be
encouraged to practice rice farming, since they have the bulk
of the strength to increase the output of rice production; The
use of mechanization by farmers should also be encouraged.
This will enhance their overall efficiency and reduce drudgery
that are always associated with rural farming.; Government
should also make efforts to make farm machines (such as
ploughs, planters, combined harvesters) processing and
storage facilities accessible, affordable and at a subsidised rate
to farmers.
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Table 1a: Respondent’s Level of Involvement in Rice Production Activities at
≤ 30 Years Old.
Activities/ Frequency Always Most of
the times
Sometimes Rarely Never
Land preparation
(%)
115
(85.2)
5
(3.7)
10
(7.4)
5
(3.7)
0
(0.0)
Planting
(%)
114
(84.4)
10
(7.4)
7
(5.2)
4
(3.0)
0
(0.0)
Weeding
(%)
109
(80.7)
10
(7.4)
11
(8.1)
5
(3.7)
0
(0.0)
Fertilizer application
(%)
8
(5.9)
8
(5.9)
27
(20.0)
17
(12.6)
75
(55.6)
Pest control
(%)
10
(7.4)
16
(11.9)
27
(20.0)
15
(11.1)
67
(49.6)
Bird scaring
(%)
48
(35.6)
41
(30.4)
28
(20.7)
12
(8.9)
6
(4.4)
Harvesting
(%)
105
(77.8)
9
(6.7)
11
(8.1)
10
7.4
0
(0.0)
Source: Field Survey, 2020
Table 1b: Respondent’s Level of Involvement in Rice Production Activities at
31 – 50 Years Old.
Activity
Always Most of
the times
Sometimes Rarely Never
Land preparation
(%)
78
(57.8)
18
(13.3)
35
(25.9)
3
(2.2)
1
(0.7)
Planting
(%)
86
(63.7)
15
(11.1)
28
(20.7)
6
(4.4)
0
(0.0)
Weeding
(%)
87
(64.4)
12
(8.9)
28
(20.7)
7
(5.2)
1
(0.7)
Fertilizer application
(%)
4
(3.0)
4
(3.0)
28
(20.7)
43
(31.9)
56
(41.5)
Pest control
(%)
2
(1.5)
19
(14.1)
29
(21.5)
33
(24.4)
52
(38.5)
Bird scaring
(%)
31
(23.0)
44
(32.6)
36
(26.7)
15
(11.1)
9
(6.7)
Harvesting
(%)
70
(51.9)
5
(3.7)
27
(20.0)
23
(17.0)
10
(7.4)
Source: Field Survey, 2020
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
Table 1c: Respondent’s Level of Involvement in Rice Production Activities at
≥ 51 Years Old.
Activity Always Most of
the times
Sometimes Rarely Never
Land preparation
(%)
53
(39.3)
9
(6.7)
24
(17.8)
40
(29.6)
9
(6.7)
Planting
(%)
63
(46.7)
7
(5.2)
24
(17.8)
23
(17.0)
18
(13.3)
Weeding
(%)
63
(46.7)
5
(3.7)
30
(22.2)
28
(20.7)
9
(6.7)
Fertilizer application
(%)
2
(1.5)
5
(3.7)
22
(16.3)
42
(31.1)
64
(47.4)
Pest control
(%)
6
(4.4)
10
(7.4)
25
(18.5)
40
(29.6)
54
(40.0)
Bird scaring
(%)
24
(17.8)
43
(31.9)
33
(24.4)
19
(14.1)
16
(11.9)
Harvesting
(%)
62
(45.9)
8
(5.9)
12
(8.9)
24
(17.8)
29
(21.5)
Source: Field Survey, 2020.
Table 2: Mean Values of Respondent’s Level of Involvement in Rice Production Activities.
Activities Age groups
≤30years Decision 31 –50years Decision >50years Decision
Land preparation 3.70 ± 0.76 High 3.25 ± 0.96 Moderate 2.42 ± 1.43 Moderate
Planting 3.70 ± 0.69 High 3.30± 0.96 Moderate 2.55 ± 1.53 Moderate
Weeding 3.65 ± 0.78 High 3.31 ± 1.02 Moderate 2.63 ± 1.41 Moderate
Fertilizer
application
0.94 ± 1.24 Low 0.94 ± 1.01 Low 0.81 ± 0.94 Low
Pest control 1.16 ± 1.35 Low 1.16 ± 1.13 Low 1.07 ± 1.13 Low
Bird scaring 2.84 ± 1.14 Moderate 2.54 ± 1.16 Moderate 2.30 ± 1.3 Moderate
Harvesting 3.50 ± 0.93 High 2.76 ± 1.42 Moderate 2.37 ± 1.68 Moderate
Scale for Decision: ≤ 1.67 (Low), 1.68 – 3.35 (Moderate) and 3.36 – 4 (High)
Source: Field survey, 2020
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
Table 3: Labour Use Pattern in Rice Production Activities.
Age groups ≤ 30 years 31 – 50 years >50 years
Production activities SL HL SC FL CL SL HL SC FL CL SL HL SC FL CL
Land preparation
(%)
64
(47.4)
46
(34.1)
12
(8.9)
6
(4.4)
7
(5.2)
8
(5.9)
52
(38.5)
2
(1.5)
70
(57.9)
3
(2.2)
1
(0.7)
116
(85.9)
0
(0.00)
15
(11.1)
3
(2.2)
Planting
(%)
49
(36.3)
48
(35.6)
7
(5.2)
22
(16.3)
9
(6.7)
24
(17.8)
28
(20.7)
1
(0.7)
80
(59.3)
2
(1.5)
21
(15.6)
76
(56.3)
0
(0.00)
34
(25.2)
4
(3.0)
Weeding
(%)
41
(30.4)
53
(39.3)
6
(4.4)
27
(20.0)
8
(5.9)
31
(23.0)
51
(37.8)
0
(0.00)
51
(37.8)
2
(1.5)
24
(17.8)
89
(65.9)
0
(0.00)
19
(14.1)
3
(2.2)
Fertilizer application
(%)
35
(25.9)
55
(40.7)
23
(17.0)
21
(15.6)
1
(0.7)
34
(25.2)
36
(26.7)
16
(11.9)
48
(35.6
1
(0.7)
34
(25.2)
36
(26.7)
41
(30.4)
21
(15.6)
3
(2.2)
Pest control
(%)
75
(55.6)
36
(26.7)
0
(0.00)
23
(17.0)
1
(0.7)
52
(38.5)
30
(22.2)
2
(1.5)
50
(37.0)
1
(0.7)
41
(30.4)
66
(48.9)
0
(0.00)
25
18.5
3
(2.2)
Harvesting
(%)
36
(26.7)
48
(35.6)
1
(0.7)
32
(23.7)
18
(13.3)
9
(6.7)
23
(17.0)
0
(0.00)
92
(68.1)
11
(8.1)
12
(8.9)
68
(50.4)
0
(0.00)
31
23.0
24
(17.8)
SL= Self Labour, HL=Hired Labour, SH=Sharecropping, FL= Family Labour, CL=Communal Labour
Source: Field survey, 2020
Mineral Characterization of Termite Mounds in Abuja campus of University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
29
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE-ACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (IJCCAS)
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