Conclusion
This study demonstrates that soil fertility, microbial abundance, and foliar nutrient dynamics in Northern Nigeria’s savanna zones are strongly influenced by ecological gradients associated with climatic aridity. As moisture availability decreases and sand content increases toward the Sahel, organic matter stabilization and nutrient retention are reduced, constraining microbial activity and limiting nutrient transformation. These patterns highlight the critical role of soil–plant–microbe interactions in determining agroecosystem productivity and resilience. Understanding these relationships provides a foundation for targeted climate-smart interventions, such as rhizosphere engineering, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management, to enhance soil fertility, support microbial function, and sustain crop performance under increasing aridity. These below-ground limitations directly influence nutrient uptake efficiency and tree functional performance.
Importantly, indigenous hardwood species partially moderated these constraints through species-specific rhizosphere interactions. By shaping microbial recruitment and nutrient cycling intensity, certain species enhanced nutrient acquisition stability even under semi-arid stress. This demonstrates that resilience in savanna agroforestry systems is not solely climate-determined but emerges from dynamic soil–plant–microbe coupling. The findings highlight the necessity of prioritizing rhizosphere functionality, soil organic matter conservation, and strategic species selection in dryland management. Strengthening below-ground biological processes represents a viable pathway for sustaining nutrient cycling and ecosystem stability under accelerating climate variability
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